Wednesday 27 October 2010

LISP 2010 Estate Safety, Health and Welfare III

Soalan 4a.
Apakah faktor-faktor tingkahlaku manusia dan bukan tingkahlaku yang menyebabkan penyakit demam denggi?

Jawapan;

1.0 Pengenalan,
Masyarakat perlu sedar mengenai bahaya penyakit demam denggi dan mencegah penyakit demam denggi adalah lebih baik dari mengubatinya. Faktor tingkahlaku manusia dan bukan tingkahlaku adalah penyebab kepada wabak penyakit demam denggi merebak.

2.0 Faktor tingkahlaku manusia,
i. Sampah dibuang di merata-rata
ii. Tidak membersihkan takungan air
iii. Persekitaran kediaman semak-samun
iv. Bangunan terbiar dan tidak diuruskan
v. Kolah air terbiar dan tidak dicuci
vi. Tayar dan botol terbiar
vii. Pesticide tidak diuruskan dengan baik
viii. Kurang kesedaran mengenai kebersihan
ix. Sikap tidak ambil peduli/tidak kisah
x. Longkang terbiar dan tersumbat

3.0 Faktor bukan tingkahlaku manusia,
i. Cuaca kerap hujan
ii. Terdapat takungan semulajadi
iii. Terdapat tanaman semulajadi
iv. Persekitaran yang lembab
v. Persekitaran yang gelap

4.0 Rumusan,
Untuk mencegah demam denggi ialah dengan memusnahkan tempat pembiakan nyamuk. Nyamuk aedes membiak dalam tempat-tempat takungan air seperti tayar buruk dan bekas menyimpan air. Air di dalam pasu bunga dan bekas air minum haiwan peliharaan perlu selalu ditukar untuk mencegah nyamuk aedes dari membiak.

Soalan 4b.
Bagaimana penyakit demam denggi dapat dibenteras di ladang Felda dan apakah tindakan pencegahan dan pengawalan yang dapat diambil?

Jawapan;

1.0 Pengenalan
Masyarakat perlu sedar mengenai bahaya penyakit demam denggi dan mencegah penyakit demam denggi adalah lebih baik dari mengubatinya. Faktor tidak menjaga kebersihan di dalam dan di luar rumah serta persekitran kawasan adalah penyebab kepada wabak penyakit demam denggi. Tindakan pencegahan dan pengawalan perlu diambil supaya penyakit demam denggi tidak merebak.

2.0 Punca penyakit demam denggi
Sikap masyarakat yang tidak mahu menjaga kebersihan persekitaran adalah menjadi punca utama pembiakan nyamuk aedes. Gigitan nyamuk aedes dewasa yang membawa kuman denggi ke badan manusia menyebabkan punca penyakit demam denggi berlaku.

3.0 Pelan tindakan program pencegahan dan pengawalan demam denggi,

i. Tetapkan matlamat;

Sifar kes demam denggi di ladang Felda.
ii. Pelan tindakan dan aktiviti pencegahan;
a. Kempen kesedaran bahaya penyakit demam denggi.
b. Kempen gotong-royong.
c. Kempen kampong indah dan bersih.
d. Menjalankan aktiviti pembersihan dan pencegahan.
e. Penguatkuasaan undang-undang.

iii. Strategi berdasarkan kepada pelan tindakan;

a. Kempen kesedaran bahaya penyakit demam denggi,
  1. Menjalankan aktiviti dalam bentuk pendidikan formal dan tidak formal yang dianjurkan oleh majikan seperti kursus, seminar dan bengkel diberikan secara berterusan kepada masyarakat setempat.
  2. Menjalankan promosi membunuh nyamuk aedes, mengawal wabak penyakit demam denggi dan menjaga kebersihan persekitaran kawasan dengan mengedarkan risalah kepada pekerja dan masyarakat setempat, menampal poster di kawasan awam dan membuat banner atau kain rentang di kawasan awam yang strategik.
b. Kempen gotong-royong,

Menjalankan aktiviti membersihkan persekitaran dengan penglibatan daripada majikan, pekerja dan masyarakat setempat. Kempen ini perlu dijalankan secara berterusan dengan membentuk jawatankuasa pemandu dan jawatankuasa penduduk.

c. Kempen pertandingan kampong indah dan bersih,
Menjalankan aktiviti pertandingan kampong indah dan bersih dengan penglibatan dan anjuran daripada majikan dengan menetapkan insentif dan ganjaran kepada pemenang. Kempen ini perlu dijalankan secara berterusan dengan membentuk jawatankuasa pemandu dan program secara tahunan.

d. Menjalankan aktiviti pembersihan dan pencegahan,
Berikut adalah langkah-langkah pencegahan utama demam denggi;
  1. Perlindungan dari gigitan nyamuk. Untuk mengelak dari gigitan nyamuk, seseorang itu perlulah mengetahui tabiat makan nyamuk dan menggunakan bahan penghindar nyamuk pada kulit badan yang terdedah apabila diperlukan. Pakai pakaian yang menutupi kebanyakan bahagian tubuh badan kerana ini boleh melindungi dari gigitan nyamuk. Pasangkan jaring nyamuk dan skrin pada tingkap di rumah untuk mencegah nyamuk dari memasuki ke dalam rumah. Elakkan dari membuat lawatan ke kawasan berisiko tinggi wabak demam denggi. Ini adalah kerana nyamuk aedes bukanlah serangga malam. Waktu puncak ia mencari makan ialah di awal pagi dan awal senja.
  2. Musnahkan tempat pembiakan nyamuk. Cara lain untuk mencegah penyakit demam denggi ialah dengan memusnahkan tempat pembiakan nyamuk. Nyamuk aedes membiak dalam tempat-tempat takungan air seperti tayar buruk dan bekas menyimpan air. Perkara yang perlu lakukan ialah: Tutup dengan rapat semua bekas air seperti baldi, besen dan tong-tong atau masukkan ubat pembunuh jentik-jentik ke dalamnya. Salin air dalam jambangan bunga setiap minggu. Buangkan air dan basuh pengalas pasu bunga setiap minggu. Periksa saluran air hujan (saluran bumbung) setiap minggu dan buang daun-daun kayu atau sampah sarap lain yang menyekat aliran air. Bersihkan persekitaran rumah. Buangkan semua bekas atau benda yang boleh menakung air seperti tayar buruk, tin kosong dan botol Pungut sampah-sarap ke dalam beg plastik dan letakkan di dalam tong sampah yang bertutup.
  3. Hapuskan nyamuk aedes dewasa.
Menjalankan semburan kabus racun serangga (Fogging) dengan menggunakan mesin Ultra Low Volume bertujuan untuk membunuh nyamuk dewasa. Semburan dijalankan pada awal pagi dan petang dan keadaan cuaca yang sesuai (tanpa hujan)
Gunakan penyembur serangga bagi membunuh nyamuk dewasa di dalam rumah. Lakukan semburan menyeluruh di bahagian dalam rumah. Penggunaan ubat nyamuk untuk mengelakkan dari digigit nyamuk jika perlu.
e. Penguatkuasaan undang-undang dan peraturan,
Akta, undang-undang dan peraturan adalah satu langkah tindakan dan kawalan untuk memastikan masyarakat sedar dan mengamalkan penjagaan kebersihan di dalam dan di luar rumah serta persekitarannya supaya wabak demam denggi dapat dikawal dan tidak merebak.
iv. Penilaian program;
Penilaian untuk setiap sesi program perlu dijalankan oleh pihak penganjur program untuk memastikan setiap matlamat dapat dicapai dan juga sebagai panduan untuk tindakan pembetulan sekiranya program didapati gagal dimanafaatkan.
4.0 Rumusan,
Masyarakat perlu sedar mengenai bahaya penyakit demam denggi dan mencegah demam denggi adalah lebih baik dari mengubati kerana sehingga kini belum ada vaksin yang sesuai untuk mengubat penyakit demam denggi. Adalah disarankan supaya semua pihak menjaga kebersihan diri dan persekitaran supaya penyakit demam denggi dapat dikawal dan tidak merebak.l

Tuesday 26 October 2010

LISP 2010 Estate Safety, Health and Welfare II

Soalan 3a

Apakah factor-faktor menyebabkan stress

Jawapan:

1.0 Pengenalan

Tekanan ialah sesuatu yang kita tidak boleh elakkan atau abaikan, ia adalah sebahagian daripada hidup kita.

Badan kita ialah dalam keadaan keseimbangan atau homeostatasis di mana keadaan fisiologikal dan psikologikal adalah dalam keadaan seimbang.
Apa jua yang mengangggu keseimbangan kita ialah penekan (stressor) dan memberi risiko tekanan.
Badan kita bertindakbalas kepada tekanan ini dengan satu set tindakbalas atau penyesuaian. Tekanan bukan sentiasa negative, ia juga boleh menjadi positif.
Satu boleh menjadi ancaman, manakala yang satu lagi membawa kepada keadaan seronok. Tekanan positif digelar “eustress” manakala yang negatif pula adalah “distress”.

Ketika kecemasan, tenaga digerakkan dan diarahkan daripada simpanan dan daripada fungsi tidak penting kepada fungsi yang penting untuk berlawan atau melompat.

Tetapi apabila ini berlaku terlalau lama, kesan-kesannya boleh membahayakan orang tersebut. Ini digelar tenakan kronik (‘chronic stress’).

2.0 Faktor-faktor menyebabkan Stress

2.1 Faktor Luar
Faktor-faktor luaran yang menyebabkan stress adalah seperti.

Faktor Fizikal
  • Bunyi Bising
  • Lampu Terang
  • Suhu Panas
  • Ruang Terkurung
  • interaksi sosial
  • Bersikap kasar
  • Sikap selalu mengarah
  • Ditakuti oleh orang lain
  • Menjadi bahan buli oleh orang lain
- Organisarsi
  • Undang-undang yang terlalu banyak
  • Peraturan yang terlalu ketat
  • Prosidur yang terlalu ketatTempoh menyiapkan kerja yang singkat
- Peristiwa yang tidak dijangka dalam kehidupan
  • Kelahiran baru
  • Kematian keluarga
  • Dibuang kerja
  • Kenaikkan pangkat yg melibatkan pertukaran tempat kerjabercerai
- kejadian yang menyusahkan
  • hilang kunci
  • kereta rosak
  • tertinggal file
  • file dalam folder tidak dijumpai
2.2 Faktor Dalaman

- Cara hidup
  • Kandungan kefain dalam badan
  • kurang tidur
  • jadual yang ketat
  • Anggappan diri yg negative (negative self talk)
  • Terlalu mengambil berat tentang sesuatu perkara
  • Mengkritik diri sendiri
  • Sikap mudah putus asa.
  • Suka fikir diri tidak bagus
  • Terlalu suka menganalisa sesuatu perkara
- Pemikiran dibawah tempurung (mind trap)
  • Harapan tidak logic
  • Pemikiran kolot
  • Sentiasa rasa diri bagus
- Sifat peribadi tersendiri
  • Terlalu ingin kerja sempurna
  • Terlalu kuat bekerja
Soalan 3b

Bincangkan bagaimana menangani stress

Jawapan;

1.0 Tekanan boleh dikawal menggunakan strategi ABC iaitu

Awareness (kesedaran),

Balance (Keseimbangan) dan

Control (kawalan).


2.0 Teknik pengurusan tekanan

2.1 Ubah pemikiran
Ubah perspektif pemikiran
Berpikiran positif
  • Lihat kekuatan diri
  • Lihat peluang yang ada
  • Belajar dari pengalaman lepas

Ubah perangai
Tegas
Kelakuan yang tersusun
  • Urus masa dgn baik
  • Rancang aktiviti harian
Bergaul dan berkongsi suka duka
Sentiasa senang hati
Alihkan tekanan kepada aktiviti lain
  • Keluar sekejap dari tekanan
  • Bertenang
  • Kurangkan tahap tekanan
  • Berfikiran logik


2.3 Ubah cara hidup

Diet
  • Makan makanan yang sihat
  • Kurangkan garam dan gula dalam makanan dan minuma
  • Kurangkan pengambilan makanan berunsur kafina
Tidak merokok atau minum minuman keras
Bersenanam
  • Tingkatkan kitaran darah
  • Kurangkan tekanan darah
  • Memperbaiki penampilan diri
  • Merapat hubungan kemasyarakatan
Tidur yang cukup
  • Beri bekalan tenaga yang cukup sepanjang hari
  • Satu pengurang tekanan yang berkesan
Bersantai

Berehat
  • Mengurangkan kesakitan
  • Mengurangkan ketegangan pada otot
  • Kurangkan tekanan darah
  • Mengurangkan kerisauan
  • Meningkatkan produktiviti
Rumusan
Tekanan sebenarnya boleh diatasi jika seseoarang dapat mempraktikkan teknik yang dinyatakan di atas. Seseorang mampu mengatasi tekanan jika beliau dapat mengubah 3 perkara utama iaitu

pemikiran,
perangai dan
cara hidup

Monday 25 October 2010

Rotary Engine


  1. The rotary engine was an early type of internal-combustion engine, usually designed with an odd number of cylinders per row in a radial configuration, in which the crankshaft remained stationary and the entire cylinder block rotated around it. The design was used mostly in the years shortly before and during World War I to power aircraft, and also saw use in a few early motorcycles and cars.
  2. By the early 1920s the rotary aircraft engine was becoming obsolete, mainly because of an upper ceiling to its possible output torque, which was a fundamental consequence of the way the engine worked.
  3. It was also limited by its inherent restriction on breathing capacity due to the need for the fuel/air mixture to be aspirated through the hollow crankshaft and crankcase, which directly affected its volumetric efficiency.
  4. However, at the time it was a very efficient solution to the problems of power output, weight, and reliability.

Brayton Cycle

The Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that describes the workings of the gas turbine engine, basis of the jet engine and others.

It is named after George Brayton (1830–1892), the American engineer who developed it, although it was originally proposed and patented by Englishman John Barber in 1791.[1] It is also sometimes known as the Joule cycle.

The Ericsson cycle is similar but uses external heat and incorporates the use of a regenerator.

Gas Engine


  1. A gas engine means an engine running on a gas, such as coal gas, producer gas biogas, landfill gas, or natural gas. In the UK, the term is unambiguous. In the US, due to the widespread use of "gas" as an abbreviation for gasoline, such an engine might also be called a gaseous fueled engine, spark ignited engine, or natural gas engine.
  2. Generally the term gas engine refers to a heavy duty, slow revving industrial engine capable of running continuously at full output for periods approaching a high fraction of 8,760 hours per year, for many years, with indefinite lifetime, unlike say a gasoline automobile engine which is lightweight, high revving and typically runs for no more than 4,000 hours in its entire life. Typical power ranges from 10 kW to 4,000 kW.

4-Stroke Engine

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Four-stroke cycle used in gasoline engines. The right blue side is the intake and the left yellow side is the exhaust. The cylinder wall is a thin sleeve surrounded by cooling water.
  1. Today, internal combustion engines in cars, trucks, motorcycles, aircraft, construction machinery and many others, most commonly use a four-stroke cycle. The four strokes refer to intake, compression, combustion (power), and exhaust strokes that occur during two crankshaft rotations per working cycle of the gasoline engine and diesel engine.
  2. The cycle begins at Top Dead Center (TDC), when the piston is farthest away from the axis of the crankshaft. A stroke refers to the full travel of the piston from Top Dead Center (TDC) to Bottom Dead Center (BDC). (See Dead centre.)

1. INTAKE stroke: On the intake or induction stroke of the piston , the piston descends from the top of the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder, reducing the pressure inside the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air is forced by atmospheric (or greater) pressure into the cylinder through the intake port. The intake valve(s) then close.

2. COMPRESSION stroke: With both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston returns to the top of the cylinder compressing the fuel-air mixture. This is known as the compression stroke.

3. POWER stroke.: While the piston is close to Top Dead Center, the compressed air–fuel mixture is ignited, usually by a spark plug (for a gasoline or Otto cycle engine) or by the heat and pressure of compression (for a diesel cycle or compression ignition engine). The resulting massive pressure from the combustion of the compressed fuel-air mixture drives the piston back down toward bottom dead center with tremendous force. This is known as the power stroke, which is the main source of the engine's torque and power.

4. EXHAUST stroke.: During the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top dead center while the exhaust valve is open. This action evacuates the products of combustion from the cylinder by pushing the spent fuel-air mixture through the exhaust valve(s).

2 Stroke Engine


  1. A two-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine that completes the thermodynamic cycle in two movements of the piston (compared to twice that number for a four-stroke engine).
  2. This increased efficiency is accomplished by using the beginning of the compression stroke and the end of the combustion stroke to perform simultaneously the intake and exhaust (or scavenging) functions.
  3. In this way two-stroke engines often provide strikingly high specific power. Gasoline (spark ignition) versions are particularly useful in lightweight (portable) applications such as chainsaws and the concept is also used in diesel compression ignition engines in large and non-weight sensitive applications such as ships and locomotives.
  4. Invention of the two-stroke cycle is attributed to Scottish engineer Dugald Clerk who in 1881 patented his design, his engine having a separate charging cylinder. The crankcase-scavenged engine, employing the area below the piston as a charging pump, is generally credited to Englishman Joseph Day (and Frederick Cock for the piston-controlled inlet port).

RECIPROCATING Engine

Internal combustion piston engine
Components of a typical, four stroke cycle, internal combustion piston engine.
E - Exhaust camshaft
I - Intake camshaft
S - Spark plug
V - Valves
P - Piston
R - Connecting rod
C - Crankshaft
W - Water jacket for coolant flow

A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the common features of all types.

The main types are: the internal combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles; the steam engine, the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution; and the niche application Stirling engine.

Sunday 24 October 2010

5 M Factors

The 5-M Factors are a model called

  1. Man
  2. Machine
  3. Medium
  4. Mission
  5. Management,

and are used to examine the nature of accidents in the transport industries. It was started by T.P. Wright's Man-Machine-Environment triad at Cornell University. The 5-M incorporates a diagram of 3 intertwined circles and one all-encompassing circle. In each of the smaller circles "Man," "machine," and "medium" are placed. The large circle is labeled "Management." The space in the middle where they all meet is called "Mission," which is the objective the other four M's have in common.

Centralization & Decentralization

Centralization, decentralization, and formalization

  • Centralization - The location of decision making authority near top organizational levels.
  • Decentralization - The location of decision making authority near lower organizational levels.
  • Formalization - The written documentation used to direct and control employees.

Centralisation, or centralization (see spelling differences), is the process by which the activities of an organisation, particularly those regarding planning decision-making, become concentrated within a particular location and/or group.

In political science, this refers to the concentration of a government's power - both geographically and politically, into a centralised government.

In neuroscience, centralization refers to the evolutionary trend of the nervous system to be partitioned into a central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.

In business studies centralisation and decentralisation is about where decisions are taken in the chain of command.

Decentralization or Decentralisation (see spelling differences) is the process of dispersing decision-making governance closer to the people and/or citizen. It includes the dispersal of administration or governance in sectors or areas like engineering, management science, political science, political economy, sociology and economics. Decentralization is also possible in the dispersal of population and employment. Law, science and technological advancements lead to highly decentralized human endeavours.

"While frequently left undefined (Pollitt, 2005), decentralization has also been assigned many different meanings (Reichard & Borgonovi, 2007), varying across countries (Steffensen & Trollegaard, 2000; Pollitt, 2005), languages (Ouedraogo, 2003), general contexts (Conyers, 1984), fields of research, and specific scholars and studies." (Dubois and Fattore 2009)

A central theme in decentralization is the difference between a hierarchy, based on:

  • authority: two players in an unequal-power relationship; and
  • an interface: a lateral relationship between two players of roughly equal power.

The more decentralized a system is, the more it relies on lateral relationships, and the less it can rely on command or force. In most branches of engineering and economics, decentralization is narrowly defined as the study of markets and interfaces between parts of a system. This is most highly developed as general systems theory and neoclassical political economy.

FMA Part 1; Reg 6

FMA (Person In Charge and Certificates of Competency-Examinations) 1970

Part I

Reg 6

No.

Internal combustion engines nor a dredge

2

<100>

1st @ 2nd driver during in shift


>100 HP

Driver in charge shall be assisted during each shift by 1st or 2nd drivers and there are not more than 2 engines to each driver.

3

<500>

1st driver for each shift, more than 2 engines (refer above)

4

500 – 1000 HP

1st driver for each shift, > 1 engine 1st driver assisted by 1st driver. Shall employ 1st visiting engineer.

5

1000-1500 HP

1st @ 2nd engineer, he shall assisted by 1st driver for each shift. >2 engines, 1st driver shall be employed.

6

>1500

1st engineer & 1st driver shall be in charge. > 1 engine, 1st driver shall be employed for each shift (not more than 2 engines)

7

Aggregate >1500 HP <2000>

1st @ 2nd engineer visiting engineer. >2000 HP

MONTHLY BOILER MECHANICAL SAFETY CHECKS

MONTHLY BOILER MECHANICAL SAFETY CHECKS

The monthly safety check on combustion and mechanics is just as important an important a part of the overall boiler program as the water treatment service. Boiler users have long seen the value of proper water treatment as vital to the success of an effective boiler maintenance program. For a long time the mechanical needs of boilers have only been addressed when there was a problem or when a shutdown occurred.

The seven advantages of this preventative maintenance program:

(1) reducing fuel cost by improving efficiency,

(2) omitting the increasing capital costs of major boiler repairs or replacement,

(3) reduced downtime due to unexpected breakdowns,

(4) improved safety,

(5) operator training ,

(6) third party audit, and

(7) insurance assurance.

(1) Reducing fuel costs was not important for many years. It was not a significant part of overall manufacturing, operating costs. However, the Arab oil embargo in the 1970's forever changed that view. Some industries found that energy was their second highest cost falling close to their number one cost of labour. At present we have an increase in competition resulting from the deregulation of natural gas. Businesses are very conscious about energy efficiency. Energy efficiency is vital in an industry to remain competitive. And the long range planning of the American industry is to preserve energy supplies for the future. A boiler with a 20,000PPH load and seven day week operation will use $1,000,000 of natural gas per year. At today's price of $5.00 per mcf of natural gas fuel savings alone will pay for the monthly maintenance service. With only a 1% improvement in efficiency the annual savings add up to $10.000. Several boiler companies are selling visual inspections as a low cost alternative but visual inspections alone accomplish little or nothing and have no cost benefit. A combustion analyzer with stack probe and printout is recommended.

To obtain a computer analysis of your boiler fuel efficiency and operating data contact your B&HES technical representative.

(2) Capital costs associated with the purchase of new boilers have risen dramatically in the past decade. But this has been for the good. Safety requirements of CSD1 (Control Safety Device) and NFPA (National Fire Protection Agency) have now been adopted by virtually all the states and will contribute greatly to the safety of boilers in the future. Control systems are now more sophisticated for better load management and DCS (distributive control systems) allow for connecting to computer controllers. The knowledge of our qualified service technicians today is

much greater than five years ago. Other boiler companies have failed to keep up with the rapid change in technology. Proper mechanical service will reduce repair and capital costs.

(3) Downtime is one of the most expensive items associated with improper maintenance of mechanical equipment. Outages can cost from thousands of dollars per hour in a small plant to hundreds of thousands of dollars in a large plant. Monthly mechanical testing often results in early detection of improper functioning controls. If possible we replace them at that

MAINTAINING EFFICIENCY

An important part of maintaining the plant is maintaining efficiency. Since the cost of fuel is the largest

single expense in a boiler plant activity it’s essential to prevent that cost getting out of control. Efficiency main tenance relies on two activities;

1. monitoring to detect any changes and

2. tune-ups when a problem arises.

Monitoring is the boiler operator’s responsibility; tune-ups are usually performed by outside contractors that have the necessary equipment and skills to perform that work. I would prefer to do my own tuning but there’s nothing wrong in having an outside contractor do the work in small plants where the energy saved cannot justify the purchase and maintenance of the equipment required to

tune up a boiler. An operator should know enough about tuning to ensure the contractor is doing a proper job and the sections on combustion and controls in this book are sufficient to impart that knowledge.

RECORDS

How do you remember when it’s time to change the oil in your automobile? That sticker on the windshield or side of the door is a record that gives you that information. I don’t know about you but I can never remember the mileage when I changed my oil last and that record is important because without it I may fail to change the oil until the engine lets me know I should have. Schedules for maintenance are essential to ensure the longevity and reliability of most equipment.

Whether you let it run until it breaks or perform significant PM (preventive maintenance/predictive maintenance) documentation is essential. For breakdown maintenance items it allows you to know about when you need to order a spare device because the operating one is scheduled to fail. More importantly, the documents tell you what to buy, what oil to use, what grease to use, etc., so you perform the maintenance in a manner that keeps the equipment and systems running.

Maintenance isn’t complete until all the documents are properly filed away (see the chapter on documentation). To anyone investigating your plant after an incident a lack of maintenance records is an indication of a failure on your part to see to it that the work was done. You can say you did it, describe the day and what you did, but without that documentation you can’t prove it. When a check is listed as part of an SOP then your entry into the log that you performed the procedure is documented

proof you did it. Be careful, however, that it’s done consistently or the entire log is questionable. Do

what you say you will and say what you did consistently for the protection of your employer, your job, and the health and welfare of you and your fellow employees.

OPERATOR ERROR AND POOR MAINTENANCE

Regrettably the National Board statistics, which are quoted here, don’t provide enough breakdown to clearly indicate why trends exist or to detect reasons for trends. I’ve seen a considerable increase in the elimination of central plants with licensed boiler operators. Their replacement multiple low pressure heating plants are maintained by individuals without a license so the increasing contribution of operator error to boiler failures isn’t really surprising. Until such time that the National

Board chooses to differentiate between licensed individuals and the janitor there’s no way for them to determine if that’s the case. In my judgment it’s the perception that licensed operators cost too much and actions taken to replace them that has resulted in increased losses and loss of life. When the person maintaining a boiler has all the training and skill of a janitor that was handed a broom and told where the boiler room is it’s no wonder this facet of failures is showing

an increase.

Is it that increase the operators’ fault? Hell no! When I encounter problems that are attributable to operator error or poor maintenance I always find an attitude on the part of the plant management that promotes or enforces the improper action or lack of action. I’ve recommended training for upper management in many plants since the 1970’s and have yet to do any. All that plant manager wants to hear from me is how screwed up the operators are and when I tell that manger that the

Problem originates at a higher level than the operators they go look for another consultant that will tell them what they want. I hope a lot of plant managers read this book but my experience indicates they won’t.

Frequently it’s not the operator that contributes to poor maintenance. The operator manages to keep the plant running by a growing mountain of temporary fixes that accumulate until nothing can keep the boiler running. The reason is management’s attitude about maintenance. In some cases operators simply have to allow the boiler to fail or shut it down due to unsafe operating conditions. One of the advantages of a license is that license gives you the authority to do just that, shut it down and refuse to operate it. Of course there’s a potential for being fired but you may get a supporting position from another source and after a hearing you will be reinstated. When you don’t have the confidence to shut the boiler down you do have the option of reporting the condition to the State Chief Boiler Inspector who will send a deputy inspector to look at the boiler. If the problem is one that threatens failure the deputy will ‘red tag’ the boiler and instruct you to shut it down.

There’s absolutely no way you can be dismissed under those circumstances. And, just because an insurance company inspector passed your boiler don’t believe you have no recourse. I know of several instances where a State Deputy Inspector red tagged a boiler that was reported safe by an insurance

company inspector. That’s especially true if nobody sees the inspector but a new certificate to operate

suddenly appears. There are situations where an insurance inspector has inspected the boiler while sitting in front of the television at his house several miles away. They aren’t supposed to do it, but it’s done. The National Board’s data doesn’t break down maintenance problems either. The most likely is loss due to lack of proper water treatment but we simply don’t know. I think that’s highly probable because a large number of boilers are installed and operated with no consideration of water treatment beyond an initial charge of chemicals, especially hot water boilers. If it isn’t broke don’t fix it! How often we’ve heard those words in one form or another. I’m always told that it hasn’t broke yet so it must be okay. If there’s no log, no record of maintenance, and no repair history I’m there because the plant is frequently shutting down for unknown reasons and fuel bills seem to be much higher. Just because it’s working doesn’t mean it’s working right. People that use that excuse are costing their employer a lot of money and exposing themselves to increased risk of injury or death.

It’s true that a licensed boiler operator could make a mistake with disastrous consequences, a license is no guarantee and neither is training. However, I’ve had many opportunities to observe individuals without a license and have no doubt that the lack of the discipline involved in training and preparing for the exam leaves lots of room for error. If you don’t have a license that doesn’t mean you’re more likely to make a mistake because I’m reasonably confident that the operator that chooses to read this book is far less likely to do something that will result in an accident with loss of life or serious injury than one who believes it’s a waste of time. Part of the business of acquiring a license includes

the development of respect for the profession and greater understanding of the responsibility so you

should attempt to get a license even if you don’t need to have one. It’s more a matter of attitude than the actual license. When a state licensing program exists the wise operator seeks to obtain the license to support a professional perception of his role.

Attitude and perception seem to be the key to operator error. When a boiler is damaged, and I’ve investigated several cases of damage that never reached the status of a National Board investigation and report; any failure in operation is usually attributable to an attitude. The most disconcerting one is “the boss doesn’t care so why should I?” Since I have the opportunity to get to know operators in several boiler plants I eventually learn a lot about their perception of their job and their attitude. It’s the ones that seem to believe that they can get away with doing the minimum and the company should be happy that they even show up that eventually make the mistakes that result in damage. Usually that

same attitude also protects them from exposure to the failure and eventual injury as well, an undeserved result. I know many operators who I’m certain will eventually do something, or not do something, that will result in failure and possible injury or death. If you don’t have some fear, fear that a boiler failure could occur if you did the wrong thing, then you are potentially one of those people that will make a mistake. You shouldn’t be afraid of the plant but you do have to respect the potential for a boiler or furnace explosion and act accordingly. It’s the people without fear, with an attitude that they’re infallible, that take unnecessary risks with everything from shortening purge periods to skipping boiler water analysis which eventually result in a failure.

Over the years I’ve screwed up. In some cases it was a royal screw up. You’ll never know how many of those operators described in this book were really the author. I give you all I can to prevent your making those mistakes and I hope you’ve learned something and even enjoyed that learning experience a little. I also hope you learned those priorities and acquired a respect for the equipment you’re operating. God bless you all, the devil doesn’t need any more help with his furnaces.

Advantages and disadvantages of gas turbine engines

Advantages of gas turbine engines

  • Very high power-to-weight ratio, compared to reciprocating engines;
  • Smaller than most reciprocating engines of the same power rating.
  • Moves in one direction only, with far less vibration than a reciprocating engine.
  • Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines.
  • Low operating pressures.
  • High operation speeds.
  • Low lubricating oil cost and consumption.

Disadvantages of gas turbine engines

  • Cost
  • Less efficient than reciprocating engines at idle
  • Longer startup than reciprocating engines
  • Less responsive to changes in power demand compared to reciprocating engines

Types of gas turbines




Aeroderivatives and jet engines


Airbreathing jet engines are gas turbines optimized to produce thrust from the exhaust gases, or from ducted fans connected to the gas turbines. Jet engines that produce thrust primarily from the direct impulse of exhaust gases are often called turbojets, whereas those that generate most of their thrust from the action of a ducted fan are often called turbofans or (rarely) fan-jets.

Gas turbines are also used in many liquid propellant rockets, the gas turbines are used to power a turbopump to permit the use of lightweight, low pressure tanks, which saves considerable dry mass.

Aeroderivatives are also used in electrical power generation due to their ability to startup, shut down, and handle load changes more quickly than industrial machines. They are also used in the marine industry to reduce weight. The GE LM2500 and LM6000 are two common models of this type of machine.

Amateur gas turbines

Increasing numbers of gas turbines are being used or even constructed by amateurs.

In its most straightforward form, these are commercial turbines acquired through military surplus or scrapyard sales, then operated for display as part of the hobby of engine collecting.[2][3] In its most extreme form, amateurs have even rebuilt engines beyond professional repair and then used them to compete for the Land Speed Record.

The simplest form of self-constructed gas turbine employs an automotive turbocharger as the core component. A combustion chamber is fabricated and plumbed between the compressor and turbine sections.[4]

More sophisticated turbojets are also built, where their thrust and light weight are sufficient to power large model aircraft.[5] The Schreckling design[5] constructs the entire engine from raw materials, including the fabrication of a centrifugal compressor wheel from plywood, epoxy and wrapped carbon fibre strands.

Like many technology based hobbies, they tend to give rise to manufacturing businesses over time. Several small companies now manufacture small turbines and parts for the amateur. Most turbojet-powered model aircraft are now using these commercial and semi-commercial microturbines, rather than a Schreckling-like home-build.[6

Auxiliary power units

APUs are small gas turbines designed for auxiliary power of larger machines, such as those inside an aircraft. They supply compressed air for aircraft ventilation (with an appropriate compressor design), start-up power for larger jet engines, and electrical and hydraulic power.

Industrial gas turbines for power generation

GE H series power generation gas turbine. This 480-megawatt unit has a rated thermal efficiency of 60% in combined cycle configurations.

Industrial gas turbines differ from aeroderivative in that the frames, bearings, and blading is of heavier construction. Industrial gas turbines range in size from truck-mounted mobile plants to enormous, complex systems.[clarification needed] They can be particularly efficient—up to 60%—when waste heat from the gas turbine is recovered by a heat recovery steam generator to power a conventional steam turbine in a combined cycle configuration.[7][8] They can also be run in a cogeneration configuration: the exhaust is used for space or water heating, or drives an absorption chiller for cooling or refrigeration. Such engines require a dedicated enclosure, both to protect the engine from the elements and the operators from the noise.[citation needed]

The construction process for gas turbines can take as little as several weeks to a few months, compared to years for base load power plants.[citation needed] Their other main advantage is the ability to be turned on and off within minutes, supplying power during peak demand. Since single cycle (gas turbine only) power plants are less efficient than combined cycle plants, they are usually used as peaking power plants, which operate anywhere from several hours per day to a few dozen hours per year, depending on the electricity demand and the generating capacity of the region. In areas with a shortage of base load and load following power plant capacity or low fuel costs, a gas turbine power plant may regularly operate during most hours of the day. A large single cycle gas turbine typically produces 100 to 300 megawatts of power and have 35–40% thermal efficiency.[9]

Compressed air energy storage

One modern development seeks to improve efficiency in another way, by separating the compressor and the turbine with a compressed air store. In a conventional turbine, up to half the generated power is used driving the compressor. In a compressed air energy storage configuration, power, perhaps from a wind farm or bought on the open market at a time of low demand and low price, is used to drive the compressor, and the compressed air released to operate the turbine when required.

Turboshaft engines

Turboshaft engines are often used to drive compression trains (for example in gas pumping stations or natural gas liquefaction plants) and are used to power almost all modern helicopters. The first shaft bears the compressor and the high speed turbine (often referred to as "Gas Generator" or "N1"), while the second shaft bears the low speed turbine (or "Power Turbine" or "N2"). This arrangement is used to increase speed and power output flexibility.

[edit] Radial gas turbines

In 1963, Jan Mowill initiated the development at Kongsberg Våpenfabrikk in Norway. Various successors have made good progress in the refinement of this mechanism. Owing to a configuration that keeps heat away from certain bearings the durability of the machine is improved while the radial turbine is well matched in speed requirement.

Scale jet engines

Scale jet engines are scaled down versions of this early full scale engine

Also known as miniature gas turbines or micro-jets.

With this in mind the pioneer of modern Micro-Jets, Kurt Schreckling, produced one of the world's first Micro-Turbines, the FD3/67.[5] This engine can produce up to 22 newtons of thrust, and can be built by most mechanically minded people with basic engineering tools, such as a metal lathe.[5]

Microturbines

A micro turbine designed for DARPA

Also known as:

  • Turbo alternators
  • MicroTurbine
  • Turbogenerator

Microturbines are becoming widespread for distributed power and combined heat and power applications. They are one of the most promising technologies for powering hybrid electric vehicles. They range from hand held units producing less than a kilowatt, to commercial sized systems that produce tens or hundreds of kilowatts. Basic principles of microturbine are based on micro combustion.

Part of their success is due to advances in electronics, which allows unattended operation and interfacing with the commercial power grid. Electronic power switching technology eliminates the need for the generator to be synchronized with the power grid. This allows the generator to be integrated with the turbine shaft, and to double as the starter motor.

Microturbine systems have many advantages over reciprocating engine generators, such as higher power-to-weight ratio, extremely low emissions and few, or just one, moving part. Advantages are that microturbines may be designed with foil bearings and air-cooling operating without lubricating oil, coolants or other hazardous materials. Microturbines also have a further advantage of having the majority of the waste heat contained in the relatively high temperature exhaust making it simpler to capture, whereas the waste heat of reciprocating engines is split between its exhaust and cooling system.[10] However, reciprocating engine generators are quicker to respond to changes in output power requirement and are usually slightly more efficient, although the efficiency of microturbines is increasing. Microturbines also lose more efficiency at low power levels than reciprocating engines. When used in vehicles the static efficiency drawback is negated by the superior power-to-weight ratio - the vehicle does not have to move a heavy engine and transmission.

They accept most commercial fuels, such as gasoline, natural gas, propane, diesel, and kerosene as well as renewable fuels such as E85, biodiesel and biogas.

Microturbine designs usually consist of a single stage radial compressor, a single stage radial turbine and a recuperator. Recuperators are difficult to design and manufacture because they operate under high pressure and temperature differentials. Exhaust heat can be used for water heating, space heating, drying processes or absorption chillers, which create cold for air conditioning from heat energy instead of electric energy.

Typical microturbine efficiencies are 25 to 35%. When in a combined heat and power cogeneration system, efficiencies of greater than 80% are commonly achieved.

MIT started its millimeter size turbine engine project in the middle of the 1990s when Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics Alan H. Epstein considered the possibility of creating a personal turbine which will be able to meet all the demands of a modern person's electrical needs, just like a large turbine can meet the electricity demands of a small city. Problems have occurred with heat dissipation and high-speed bearing in these new microturbines. Moreover, their expected efficiency is very low 5-6%. According to Professor Epstein current commercial Li-ion rechargeable batteries deliver about 120-150 Wh/kg. MIT's millimeter size turbine will deliver 500-700 Wh/kg in the near term, rising to 1200-1500 Wh/kg in the longer term.[11]