International Accounting Standards

International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) are principles-based Standards, Interpretations and the Framework (1989)[1] adopted by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB).

Many of the standards forming part of IFRS are known by the older name of International Accounting Standards (IAS). IAS were issued between 1973 and 2001 by the Board of the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC). On 1 April 2001, the new IASB took over from the IASC the responsibility for setting International Accounting Standards. During its first meeting the new Board adopted existing IAS and SICs. The IASB has continued to develop standards calling the new standards IFRS.

Structure of IFRS

IFRS are considered a "principles based" set of standards in that they establish broad rules as well as dictating specific treatments.

International Financial Reporting Standards comprise:

* International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS)—standards issued after 2001
* International Accounting Standards (IAS)—standards issued before 2001
* Interpretations originated from the International Financial Reporting Interpretations Committee (IFRIC)—issued after 2001
* Standing Interpretations Committee (SIC)—issued before 2001
* Conceptual Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements (2010)

IAS 8 Par. 11

"In making the judgement described in paragraph 10, management shall refer to, and consider the applicability of, the following sources in descending order:

(a) the requirements and guidance in Standards and Interpretations dealing with similar and related issues; and

(b) the definitions, recognition criteria and measurement concepts for assets, liabilities, income and expenses in the Framework."

Framework

The Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements states basic principles for IFRS.

The IASB and FASB Frameworks are in the process of being updated and converged. The Joint Conceptual Framework project aims to update and refine the existing concepts to reflect the changes in markets, business practices and the economic environment that have occurred in the two or more decades since the concepts were first developed.

Its overall objective is to create a sound foundation for future accounting standards that are principles-based, internally consistent and internationally converged. Therefore the IASB and the US FASB (the boards) are undertaking the project jointly.
[edit] Role of Framework

Deloitte states:

In the absence of a Standard or an Interpretation that specifically applies to a transaction, management must use its judgement in developing and applying an accounting policy that results in information that is relevant and reliable. In making that judgement, IAS 8.11 requires management to consider the definitions, recognition criteria, and measurement concepts for assets, liabilities, income, and expenses in the Framework. This elevation of the importance of the Framework was added in the 2003 revisions to IAS 8.[2]

[edit] Objective of financial statements

A financial statement should reflect true and fair view of the business affairs of the organization. As these statements are used by various constituents of the society / regulators, they need to reflect true view of the financial position of the organization. and it is very helpful to check the financial position of the business for a specific period.
[edit] Underlying assumptions

IFRS authorize two basic accounting models:

I. Financial capital maintenance in nominal monetary units, i.e., Historical cost accounting during low inflation and deflation (see the Framework, Par 104 (a)).

II. Financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power, i.e., Constant Item Purchasing Power Accounting - CIPPA - during low inflation and deflation (see the Framework, Par 104 (a)) and Constant Purchasing Power Accounting (see IAS 29) - CPPA - during hyperinflation. Financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power is not authorized under US GAAP.

The following are the four underlying assumptions in IFRS:

* 1. Accrual basis: the effect of transactions and other events are recognized when they occur, not as cash is gained or paid.
* 2. Going concern: an entity will continue for the foreseeable future.
* 3. Stable measuring unit assumption: financial capital maintenance in nominal monetary units or traditional Historical cost accounting; i.e., accountants consider changes in the purchasing power of the functional currency up to but excluding 26% per annum for three years in a row (which would be 100% cumulative inflation over three years or hyperinflation as defined in IFRS) as immaterial or not sufficiently important for them to choose financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power during low inflation and deflation as authorized in IFRS in the Framework, Par 104 (a).

Accountants implementing the stable measuring unit assumption (traditional Historical Cost Accounting) during annual inflation of 25% for 3 years in a row would destroy 100% of the real value of all constant real value non-monetary items not maintained under the Historical Cost paradigm.

* 4. Units of constant purchasing power: financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power during low inflation and deflation; i.e. the rejection of the stable measuring unit assumption. See The Framework (1989), Paragraph 104 (a). Measurement in units of constant purchasing power (inflation-adjustment) under Constant Item Purchasing Power Accounting of only constant real value non-monetary items (not variable items) remedies the destruction caused by Historical Cost Accounting of the real values of constant real value non-monetary items never maintained constant as a result of the implementation of the stable measuring unit assumption during low inflation. It is not inflation doing the destroying. It is the implementation of the stable measuring unit assumption, i.e., HCA. Only constant real value non-monetary items are inflation-adjusted during low inflation and deflation. All non-monetary items (both variable real value non-monetary items and constant real value non-monetary items) are inflation-adjusted during hyperinflation as required in IAS 29 Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies, i.e. under Constant Purchasing Power Accounting.

[edit] Qualitative characteristics of financial statements

Qualitative characteristics of financial statements include:

* Understandability
* Reliability
* Comparability
* Relevance
* True and Fair View/Fair Presentation

[edit] Elements of financial statements

The financial position of an enterprise is primarily provided in the Statement of Financial Position. The elements include:

1. Asset: An asset is a resource controlled by the enterprise as a result of past events from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the enterprise.
2. Liability: A liability is a present obligation of the enterprise arising from the past events, the settlement of which is expected to result in an outflow from the enterprise' resources, i.e., assets.
3. Equity: Equity is the residual interest in the assets of the enterprise after deducting all the liabilities under the Historical Cost Accounting model. Equity is also known as owner's equity. Under the units of constant purchasing power model equity is the constant real value of shareholders´ equity.

The financial performance of an enterprise is primarily provided in an income statement or profit and loss account. The elements of an income statement or the elements that measure the financial performance are as follows:

1. Revenues: increases in economic benefit during an accounting period in the form of inflows or enhancements of assets, or decrease of liabilities that result in increases in equity. However, it does not include the contributions made by the equity participants, i.e., proprietor, partners and shareholders.
2. Expenses: decreases in economic benefits during an accounting period in the form of outflows, or depletions of assets or incurrences of liabilities that result in decreases in equity.

Revenues and expenses are measured in nominal monetary units under the Historical Cost Accounting model and in units of constant purchasing power (inflation-adjusted) under the Units of Constant Purchasing Power model.
[edit] Recognition of elements of financial statements

An item is recognized in the financial statements when:

* it is probable future economic benefit will flow to or from an entity.
* the resource can be reliably measured - otherwise the stable measuring unit assumption is applied under the Historicald Cost Accounting model: i.e. it is assumed that the monetary unit of account (the functional currency) is perfectly stable (zero inflation or deflation); it is simply assumed that there is no inflation or deflation ever, and items are stated at their original nominal Historical Cost from any prior date: 1 month, 1 year, 10 or 100 or 200 or more years before; i.e. the stable measuring unit assumption is applied to items such as issued share capital, retained earnings, capital reserves, all other items in shareholders´ equity, all items in the Statement of Comprehensive Income (except salaries, wages, rentals, etc., which are inflation-adjusted annually), etc.

Under the Units of Constant Purchasing Power model, all constant real value non-monetary items are inflation-adjusted during low inflation and deflation; i.e. all items in the Statement of Comprehensive Income, all items in shareholders´ equity, Accounts Receivables, Accounts Payables, all non-monetary payables, all non-monetary receivables, provisions, etc.
[edit] Measurement of the Elements of Financial Statements

Par. 99. Measurement is the process of determining the monetary amounts at which the elements of the financial statements are to be recognized and carried in the balance sheet and income statement. This involves the selection of the particular basis of measurement.

Par. 100. A number of different measurement bases are employed to different degrees and in varying combinations in financial statements. They include the following:

(a) Historical cost. Assets are recorded at the amount of cash or cash equivalents paid or the fair value of the consideration given to acquire them at the time of their acquisition. Liabilities are recorded at the amount of proceeds received in exchange for the obligation, or in some circumstances (for example, income taxes), at the amounts of cash or cash equivalents expected to be paid to satisfy the liability in the normal course of business.

(b) Current cost. Assets are carried at the amount of cash or cash equivalents that would have to be paid if the same or an equivalent asset was acquired currently. Liabilities are carried at the undiscounted amount of cash or cash equivalents that would be required to settle the obligation currently.

(c) Realisable (settlement) value. Assets are carried at the amount of cash or cash equivalents that could currently be obtained by selling the asset in an orderly disposal. Assets are carried at the present discounted value of the future net cash inflows that the item is expected to generate in the normal course of business. Liabilities are carried at the present discounted value of the future net cash outflows that are expected to be required to settle the liabilities in the normal course of business.

Par. 101. The measurement basis most commonly adopted by entities in preparing their financial statements is historical cost. This is usually combined with other measurement bases. For example, inventories are usually carried at the lower of cost and net realisable value, marketable securities may be carried at market value and pension liabilities are carried at their present value. Furthermore, some entities use the current cost basis as a response to the inability of the historical cost accounting model to deal with the effects of changing prices of non-monetary assets.
[edit] Concepts of Capital and Capital Maintenance

A major difference between US GAAP and IFRS is the fact that three fundamentally different concepts of capital and capital maintenance are authorized in IFRS while US GAAP only authorize two capital and capital maintenance concepts during low inflation and deflation: (1) physical capital maintenance and (2) financial capital maintenance in nominal monetary units (traditional Historical Cost Accounting) as stated in Par 45 to 48 in the FASB Conceptual Satement Nº 5. US GAAP does not recognize the third concept of capital and capital maintenance during low inflation and deflation, namely, financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power as authorized in IFRS in the Framework, Par 104 (a) in 1989.
[edit] Concepts of Capital

Par. 102. A financial concept of capital is adopted by most entities in preparing their financial statements. Under a financial concept of capital, such as invested money or invested purchasing power, capital is synonymous with the net assets or equity of the entity. Under a physical concept of capital, such as operating capability, capital is regarded as the productive capacity of the entity based on, for example, units of output per day.

Par. 103. The selection of the appropriate concept of capital by an entity should be based on the needs of the users of its financial statements. Thus, a financial concept of capital should be adopted if the users of financial statements are primarily concerned with the maintenance of nominal invested capital or the purchasing power of invested capital. If, however, the main concern of users is with the operating capability of the entity, a physical concept of capital should be used. The concept chosen indicates the goal to be attained in determining profit, even though there may be some measurement difficulties in making the concept operational.
[edit] Concepts of Capital Maintenance and the Determination of Profit

Par. 104. The concepts of capital in paragraph 102 give rise to the following concepts of capital maintenance:

(a) Financial capital maintenance. Under this concept a profit is earned only if the financial (or money) amount of the net assets at the end of the period exceeds the financial (or money) amount of net assets at the beginning of the period, after excluding any distributions to, and contributions from, owners during the period. Financial capital maintenance can be measured in either nominal monetary units or units of constant purchasing power.

(b) Physical capital maintenance. Under this concept a profit is earned only if the physical productive capacity (or operating capability) of the entity (or the resources or funds needed to achieve that capacity) at the end of the period exceeds the physical productive capacity at the beginning of the period, after excluding any distributions to, and contributions from, owners during the period.

The concepts of capital in paragraph 102 give rise to the following three concepts of capital during low inflation and deflation:

* (A) Physical capital. See paragraph 102&103
* (B) Nominal financial capital. See paragraph 104.[3]
* (C) Constant purchasing power financial capital. See paragraph 104.[4]

The concepts of capital in paragraph 102 give rise to the following three concepts of capital maintenance during low inflation and deflation:

* (1) Physical capital maintenance: optional during low inflation and deflation. Current Cost Accounting model prescribed by IFRS. See Par 106.
* (2) Financial capital maintenance in nominal monetary units (Historical cost accounting): authorized by IFRS but not prescribed—optional during low inflation and deflation. See Par 104 (a) Historical cost accounting. Financial capital maintenance in nominal monetary units per se during inflation and deflation is a fallacy: it is impossible to maintain the real value of financial capital constant with measurement in nominal monetary units per se during inflation and deflation.
* (3) Financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power (Constant Item Purchasing Power Accounting): authorized by IFRS but not prescribed—optional during low inflation and deflation. See Par 104(a). Financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power is prescribed in IAS 29 [3] during hyperinflation: i.e. Constant Purchasing Power Accounting - CPPA.[5] Only financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power per se can automatically maintain the real value of financial capital constant during inflation and deflation in all entities that at least break even—ceteris paribus—for an indefinite period of time. This would happen whether these entities own revaluable fixed assets or not and without the requirement of more capital or additional retained profits to simply maintain the existing constant real value of existing shareholders´ equity constant. Financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power requires the calculation and accounting of net monetary losses and gains from holding monetary items during low inflation and deflation. The calculation and accounting of net monetary losses and gains during low inflation and deflation have thus been authorized in IFRS since 1989.

Par. 105. The concept of capital maintenance is concerned with how an entity defines the capital that it seeks to maintain. It provides the linkage between the concepts of capital and the concepts of profit because it provides the point of reference by which profit is measured; it is a prerequisite for distinguishing between an entity’s return on capital and its return of capital; only inflows of assets in excess of amounts needed to maintain capital may be regarded as profit and therefore as a return on capital. Hence, profit is the residual amount that remains after expenses (including capital maintenance adjustments, where appropriate) have been deducted from income. If expenses exceed income the residual amount is a loss.

Par. 106. The physical capital maintenance concept requires the adoption of the current cost basis of measurement. The financial capital maintenance concept, however, does not require the use of a particular basis of measurement. Selection of the basis under this concept is dependent on the type of financial capital that the entity is seeking to maintain.

Par. 107. The principal difference between the two concepts of capital maintenance is the treatment of the effects of changes in the prices of assets and liabilities of the entity. In general terms, an entity has maintained its capital if it has as much capital at the end of the period as it had at the beginning of the period. Any amount over and above that required to maintain the capital at the beginning of the period is profit.

Par. 108. Under the concept of financial capital maintenance where capital is defined in terms of nominal monetary units, profit represents the increase in nominal money capital over the period. Thus, increases in the prices of assets held over the period, conventionally referred to as holding gains, are, conceptually, profits. They may not be recognised as such, however, until the assets are disposed of in an exchange transaction. When the concept of financial capital maintenance is defined in terms of constant purchasing power units, profit represents the increase in invested purchasing power over the period. Thus, only that part of the increase in the prices of assets that exceeds the increase in the general level of prices is regarded as profit. The rest of the increase is treated as a capital maintenance adjustment and, hence, as part of equity.

Par. 109. Under the concept of physical capital maintenance when capital is defined in terms of the physical productive capacity, profit represents the increase in that capital over the period. All price changes affecting the assets and liabilities of the entity are viewed as changes in the measurement of the physical productive capacity of the entity; hence, they are treated as capital maintenance adjustments that are part of equity and not as profit.

Par. 110. The selection of the measurement bases and concept of capital maintenance will determine the accounting model used in the preparation of the financial statements. Different accounting models exhibit different degrees of relevance and reliability and, as in other areas, management must seek a balance between relevance and reliability. This Framework is applicable to a range of accounting models and provides guidance on preparing and presenting the financial statements constructed under the chosen model. At the present time, it is not the intention of the Board of IASC to prescribe a particular model other than in exceptional circumstances, such as for those entities reporting in the currency of a hyperinflationary economy. This intention will, however, be reviewed in the light of world developments.[6]
[edit] Requirements of IFRS
Main article: Requirements of IFRS

IFRS financial statements consist of (IAS1.8)

* a Statement of Financial Position
* a Statement of Comprehensive Income or two separate statements comprising an Income Statement and separately a Statement of Comprehensive Income, which reconciles Profit or Loss on the Income statement to total comprehensive income
* a Statement of Changes in Equity (SOCE)
* a Cash Flow Statement or Statement of Cash Flows
* notes, including a summary of the significant accounting policies

Comparative information is required for the prior reporting period (IAS 1.36). An entity preparing IFRS accounts for the first time must apply IFRS in full for the current and comparative period although there are transitional exemptions (IFRS1.7).

On 6 September 2007, the IASB issued a revised IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements. The main changes from the previous version are to require that an entity must:

* present all non-owner changes in equity (that is, 'comprehensive income' ) either in one Statement of comprehensive income or in two statements (a separate income statement and a statement of comprehensive income). Components of comprehensive income may not be presented in the Statement of changes in equity.
* present a statement of financial position (balance sheet) as at the beginning of the earliest comparative period in a complete set of financial statements when the entity applies the new standatd.
* present a statement of cash flow.
* make necessary disclosure by the way of a note.

The revised IAS 1 is effective for annual periods beginning on or after 1 January 2009. Early adoption is permitted.